BPS 212 Psychology of Exceptionality Modification Instruction University of Cape Coast

University of Cape Coast

BPS 212 Psychology of Exceptionality Modification Instruction University of Cape Coast

Defining Special Education:
Generally, special education can be conceptualised as teaching designed to cater for the unique
needs of learners.
Kirk and Gallagher (1994) see special education as those additional services over and above
the regular school programme that are provided for exceptional individuals to assist in the
development of their potentialities or the amelioration of their disabilities. These additional
services include special equipment such as braille machines for the blind, hearing aid for the
deaf, instruction in sign language for the deaf and special devices for the physically challenged.
Hallahan and Kauffman (1986) defines it as specially designed instruction that meets the
unique needs of an exceptional individual.
UNESCO (1983) also sees Special Education as a form of education provided for those who are
not achieving, or unlikely to achieve through ordinary provision, the levels of education, social
and other attainments appropriate at their age.
Heward and Orlansky (1992) said that “special education is individually planned,
systematically implemented and carefully evaluated instruction to help exceptional learners
achieve the greatest possible personal self-sufficiency and success in present and future
environments.
Heward (2013, p 34) defines special education as „individually planned, specialised, intensive,
goal-directed instruction‟. He further states that when practised most effectively and ethically it
involved the use of evidenced-based teaching methods and the use of these methods is guided by
„direct and frequent measures of student performance‟. Table 1 below shows the dimensions and
defining features of special education intervention based on the features of Heward‟s definition.
Dimensions Defining features
Individually
planned
 Learning goals and objectives selected from each student based on assessment
results and inputs from parents
 Teaching methods and instructional materials selected/or adapted for each student
 Setting(s) where instruction will occur determined relative to opportunities for
students to learn and use targeted skills
Specialised Sometimes involves unique or adapted teaching procedures seldom used in general
education (e.g. ,constant time delay, token reinforcement, self-monitoring)
 Incorporates a wide variety of instructional materials and support -both natural and
contrived- to help student acquire and use targeted learning objectives
Related services )e.g., audiology, physical therapy) provided as needed
 Assistive technology (e.g., adapted cup holder, head operated switch to select
communication symbols) provided as needed
Intensive  Instruction presented with attention to detail, precision, structure, clarity and
repeated practice
 „relentless urgent‟ instruction (Zigmond & Baker, 1995)
Efforts made to provide accidental, naturalistic for student to use targeted
knowledge and skill
Goaldirected
Purposeful instruction intended to help student achieve the greatest possible
personal self-sufficiency and success in present and future environments
Values/goodness of instruction determined by student‟s attainment of learning out
comes
Researchbased
methods
Recognising that not all teaching approaches are equally effective
 Instructional programmes and teaching procedures selected on bases of research
support
Guided by
student
performance
Systematic, ongoing monitoring of student progress
Results of frequent and direct measures of students learning used to inform
modification in instruction
Adapted from Heward (2013, p.34)

From the various definitions presented by the authors, Special Education can be described as
education which caters for individuals whose educational, social, emotional, physical and other
needs cannot be met through the ordinary or average ways of teaching/learning in the ordinary
school. For instance, if there is an individual in your class who always reads or copies wrongly
from the chalkboard, and you make your writing bolder and also say aloud what you write on the
board to enable the individual overcome his/her challenge, then you are practising Special
Education. The reason is that since the ordinary writing is not helpful to the individual, you are
using specially designed instruction to help him/her. The specially designed instruction includes
special methods and teaching/learning materials.
In the above example, the individual who always reads and copies wrongly from the
chalkboard is an example of an exceptional individual because his/her educational needs could
not be met when the teacher uses the ordinary method. Exceptional individuals are therefore,
those individuals who deviate significantly from what is considered normal. The deviation could
be sensory, physical, mental or emotional. Examples of such deviations are:
Sensory: Visual impairment and hearing impairment.
Physical: Physically challenged and health impairments,communication disorders
Mental : Intellectual disability, gifted/talentedness and learning disabilities.
Emotional: Emotionally disturbed and behaviour disorders.
The focus in Special Education is in helping individuals who have specific challenges
which prevent them from learning through the regular school system. Special needs individuals
include those who are handicapped in labour, unable to learn, under achieving, street
individuals and others from disaster zones.
In Special Education, the emphasis is placed on the uniqueness of the individual.
Skilled intervention and special care are provided to enable them to reach their potential.
It is concerned with individuals with disabilities and those without disabilities who
cannot learn through the ordinary method. It has instructional and learning environments which
may include specific and appropriately trained teachers for each group of exceptional
individuals. It also focuses on appropriate placement of the individual in the educational system.
There are individuals whose learning needs cannot be adequately catered for by general
educational methods. This group of individuals need special education to cater for their
educational needs. Special education therefore caters for the need of all categories of individuals
with special needs. Special education can also be viewed as purposeful intervention. Heward
(2013, p.28) therefore said that the central purpose of special education is „instructionally based
intervention’. This purposeful intervention prevents, eliminates or helps to overcome the
obstacles that might keep an individual with special needs from learning and from full and active
participation in school and society. There are three basic types or levels of intervention:
Preventive: intervening to keep potential or minor problem from becoming a disability. This
preventive intervention can be exercised on three levels:
 Primary preventive: this aims at reducing the incidence of new cases of disability. This
involves efforts to eliminate or counteract the risk factors so that a child never acquires a
disability. This preventive efforts targets people who might be at risk.
 Secondary prevention: this is targeted towards people who have already been exposed to
or display specific risk factors. It aims at eliminating or counteracting the effects of these
risk factors.
 Tertiary: this targets individuals with a disability and intends to prevent the effects of the
disability from worsening.
It must be noted that preventive efforts must be embarked on as early as possible even if possible
before birth.
Remedial: eliminating the effects of the disability through instruction (teaching and learning).
Compensatory: teaching the use of devices that enable successful functioning in spite of the
disability.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN SPECIAL EDUCATION AND REGULAR EDUCATION
Ultimately both special education and regular education aims at teaching and learning. The issue
is what makes special education different from regular education? The differences can be viewed
in terms of „who‟, „what‟, „how‟ and „where‟ the teaching/learning is done.
Who
The “who” in special education refers to the individuals whose educational needs necessitate an
individually planned programme of instruction? In addition to the exceptional individuals the
„who‟ also refers to general education teachers who handle the special individuals. Working with
special educators and regular education teachers are others who provide related services to
individuals with special needs and are also members of the interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary
team. Some of such professionals are school psychologists, speech and language pathologists,
physical therapists, counsellors, social workers, nurses etc. These professionals work with
teachers, parents and family members with the aim of helping exceptional individuals learn
despite their differences and special needs.
What
Special education can further be differentiated from general education by its curriculum, that is,
what is taught. For example those with intellectual disability will be taught self-help skills such
as dressing, eating and toilet training. Also an individual who is blind will be taught how to read
and write Braille while those who are deaf will be taught sign language. These special contents
are not taught to regular individuals as they do not need them. Heward (2013) points out that

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